The interpretation of Dante’s use of
the Bible, especially as found in Dante’s
Inferno, is often a point of contention among scholars. It is not
questioned that Dante uses imagery in the Inferno that seems to mirror
that of the Bible. For example, the souls in Canto XIX are punished by having
their feet eternally burned. All recognize this as a parody of the Pentecost
and Baptism where a flame above one’s head serves as a blessing. Scholars cite these
perversions to try and prove that The
Inferno mocks the Bible. One scholar, Harold Bloom goes as far as to
say that the poet purposely misuses biblical references in an attempt to
condemn Christian teaching and alter it into his perception. This essay will prove that Canto XIX demonstrated
how Dante utilized examples of the Bible, in order to display its morality and
confirm its teaching. Thus, he would have no reason to contradict what he
already wrote by mocking the Bible through mirrored uses. One way Dante is able to display his obedient
views of scripture is through his accurate descriptions of biblical characters
and their sins. In Canto XIX, Dante constantly references scripture by
depicting characters, such as Simon Magnus, in accordance with their biblical
descriptions. In addition to this, he designs the punishments of the souls in
his book in concord with the teachings of the Bible. One way he portrays such
concord is by having all the souls of the simoniacs suffer a punishment in Hell
that Simon Magnus himself did on earth. Thus it can be seen that Dante does not
use imagery in Hell to mock the Bible, but rather to set up Hell’s imperfection
by the false way it mirrors perfection itself. As when the three heads of Satan
serve the purpose to show him as the imperfect trinity. Through means of these
arguments this paper will illuminate Dante’s reasoning for the parodies of
Christian teaching.
In Canto XIX, Dante presents the act
of simony as unjust, writing: “O Simon Magus! O disciples of his!/ Miserable
pimps and hucksters, that have sold/ The things of God, troth-plight to
righteousness,/Into adultery for silver and gold;[1]”
In the beginning lines of this Canto, Dante compares the simoniacs to ‘miserable
pimps and hucksters.’ For what some scholars argue to be an anti-Christian
parody, this comparison is notably contradicting. Dante is essentially stating
that selling the things of God is no different than selling one’s body to
profligacy. Furthermore, he goes on to use the word ‘adulterate’ implying
simony as adultery against the church. Thus, Dante makes his comparison between
simony and pimps even more fitting. Simply, Dante believes that the selling and
buying of Church possessions is of comparable crime to being a pimp or a huckster.
Not only does Dante bluntly state this in the very first four lines of the
Canto, he uses an example from the Bible which should make any anti-Christian
argument indisputable. Simon, who performed satanic like tricks, offered the
apostles money in exchange for the ‘power’ of the Holy Spirit, as his.
"Give me also this power, that any one on whom I lay my hands may receive
the Holy Spirit.[2]”
Dante portrays through means of these examples how profoundly he agrees with
the teachings of the Bible and goes as far to use Simon, one of the worst
examples of simony, as an example for his work.
Simony has
already been established, through the use of Simon Magnus, as a crime against
the Church. Dante furthers his views by taking the punishments that Simon
Magnus endured in the Bible, and incorporates them into his punishments in the Inferno.
In the Acts of Peter, Simon was a magician who tricked others into believing he
performed miracles. Simon is later condemned by Peter who claims that his
powers are not from God. In defense, Simon told the Romans that he was far
mightier than both Peter and his God:
“If thy God is able, whom the Jews put to death, and stoned you that
were chosen of him let him show
that faith in him is faith in God, and let it appear at this time, if it be
worthy of God. For I, ascending up, will show myself unto all this
multitude, who I am.[3]”
Simon was then lifted before the crowd. Peter, however, cried out to the Lord:
“O Lord, and let him fall from the height and be disabled; and let him not die
but be brought to nought, and break his shank in three places.[4]”
Upon Peter’s exclamation, Simon fell to the ground and broke his leg, and rocks
were thrown on him by the people. In Canto XIX, the reader will find that Dante
incorporates Simon’s broken shank in the punishments of the Simoniacs. One of Dante’s punishments for these souls
was to be projected through holes while their shanks were held in by rock. “He
brought me close the cleft, where he who made/ Such woeful play with his shanks
was locked up fast.[5]” The use of the word ‘zanca’ or ‘shanks,’ is
widely debated among those reading the Inferno. Many believe that by
using shank, Dante merely meant to express the soul’s legs and therefore had no
typological purpose for the word. Charles S. Singleton, however, believes that
Dante precisely chose the word to draw the reader’s attention back to the fall of
Simon Magnus. Although neither side can be explicitly proven, Singleton’s view
has more evident reasoning. First, Dante
goes into great detail about the portion of the leg that can be seen above the
rock: “li piedi e de le gambe infino al grosso.[6]”
This means: “The feet up to the calf.” The poet, therefore, goes out of his way
to explain his meaning, eliminating the possibility that he merely meant the
leg. Dante’s explanation applies specifically to the English word shank: “The
part of the lower limb in humans between the knee and the ankle.[7]”
This is how Sayers, and many other translators, commonly translate ‘zanca.’
Dante, only after already going out of his way
to both concord his views with biblical teaching and incorporate its ideas, now
uses another parallel. The souls endure endless flames upon their feet, which
some, even after aforementioned context, believe to mock baptism. The flames,
however, are not a blessing, but, a punishment. It therefore seems logical that
the flames would be put on the feet rather than the head. Instead of wiping
away original sins, the flames serve as a punishment. The punishment is
fitting, since baptism is the receiving of the Holy Spirit, which the Simon
Magnus and the Simoniacs sought to buy and sell. Thus, because Simon Magnus
sinned against the Holy Spirit, the flames that were supposed to glorify the
simoniacs on their heads, instead burn them on their feet. Adding to the
relation between the punishment and the sin, is the Pentecost. The Holy Spirit
put a flame upon the heads of the apostles and enabled them to speak in
tongues. By this example, flames on the feet of the Simoniacs become even more
clearly inversions of the Holy Spirit. The flames symbolism from here can mean
one of two things to the reader. They can contradict what Dante has previously
alluded to in the rest of the chapter and mock Baptism, or they can serve as to
denounce the characters that suffer them rather than mock the Bible. Clearly,
the non-contradicting option makes more sense, thus, Dante portrays to the
reader multiple examples of biblical details and incorporates them into his
Hell as a mirrored typology. This is to say, that hell is depicted as the
distorted opposite of the Bible.
Dante uses
countless examples when Hell curtains parodies of Christian symbols. This is to
say that iconic Christian imagery and noted biblical text are used, but they
appear in hell with an ironic twist. Harold Blooms believes that this serves
the purpose of “mocking” Christian teaching. Dante, he writes, “was essentially a sect of
one, not as a pilgrim, but as a prophetic poet. Milton was Bible-haunted and
yet attempted things both in completion with, and beyond the scope of the
Bible. The Comedy, for all its learning, is not deeply involved with the Bible.”
Dante, however, having already gone out of his way to approve and incorporate
biblical teaching throughout his poem, has already implied to the reader that
he had no intention of ridiculing the Bible. Reasonably, Dante used the
perverted imagery of biblical symbols in order to set up Hell as the perversion
of good. One place this is shown is in the City of Dis, specifically in Canto
XXXIV. The beginning which begins: "'Vexilla Regis prodeunt Inferni'
towards us; therefore look in front of thee," My Master said, "if
thou discernest him.[8]"
The first words in Italian are taken from a poem by the Catholic Saint: Venantius
Fortunatus. The poem itself was from part of a liturgy written in adulation for
Christ. But, the poem is misquoted because of the added word “inferni.” Some
scholars believe that Dante purposely has Virgil quote this hymn, right before
approaching Lucifer, in order to condemn the hymn and its teaching. This
idea is as of two main evidences. First, the misquoted delineation of teaching,
thus far throughout Dante’s poem, has always served the purpose of condemning
the characters that utter them, rather than the teaching itself. Second, this
idea is taken out of context from the rest of the Canto. In Canto XXXIV, Dante
shows the character of Lucifer as the perversion of Christ. Thus, it is fitting
that Virgil somewhat misuses or ‘perverts’ a poem related to Christ. The first
way this perversion is shown is through the literal image of Lucifer
himself. “Were he as fair once,/ as he
now is foul,/ And lifted up his brow against his Maker,/ Well may proceed from
him all tribulation./ O, what a marvel it appeared to me,/ When I beheld three
faces on his head![9]”
Lucifer, by this depiction, is in many ways a contorted imitation of the Holy
Trinity. Christian philosophy at the time of Dante, and now, believe that evil does
not create, but mimics other things. When evil mimics, however, it perverts and
distorts the image which it is trying to copy. It is therefore appropriate for
Dante to portray Lucifer having three heads and one body, making a parody of
the holy trinity. Adding to this, Lucifer is not able to speak other than with
foul cries and moans. Instead, he is preoccupied with eternally consuming the
souls of Judas, Brutus, and Cassius. This single aspect of Satan sets up a
brilliant contrast between Christ and Lucifer. Christ is known as the word made
flesh: “And the Word was made flesh, and dwelt among us, and we beheld his
glory, the glory as of the only begotten of the Father, full of grace and
truth.[10]”
Since Christ can be acclaimed to this title, it is fitting for Lucifer to be
both silent and everlastingly consuming souls; making Lucifer the opposite of
the word and perversion of the Holy Eucharist.
Satan is therefore the perversion of the word made flesh. It must also
be noted that by this point in the poem, Dante the character is in the center
of the demonic universe and at the deepest level of Hell. Through these
premises, Dante sets up the center of the universe as the perversion of the
word made flesh, or simply, the perversion of Christ himself. By doing so,
Dante expresses how Christ is the center of the universe even in Hell; however,
He only exists in a mimicked form. Lastly, as intended by Dante , to complete
this imagery, the City of Dis itself is a parallel of heaven or as described by
St. Augustine, the City of God. “He from before me moved and made me stop,
Saying: Behold Dis, and behold the place Where thou with fortitude must arm
thyself how frozen I became and powerless then[11]”
The city of Dis contains dismal imagery of towers, gates, bridges, and mosques,
all guarded by fallen angels. This mirrors the City of God which refutes pagan
worship. Therefore, setting up Lucifer and the City of Dis as the distorted
equal to Christ and the City of God.
[1] Benfell, Stanley V. "Prophetic Madness: The Bible in Inferno
XIX." Comp. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1st ser. 110 (1995): 1-19.
1st page.
2 Singleton, Charles S. "Inferno XIX: O Simon Mago!" Comp. The
Johns Hopkins University Press. 92-99 80 (1965) 1st page.
3 Dante, Alighieri. The Comedy of Dante Alighieri,
the Florentine: Cantica I - Hell (l'Inferno). Trans. Dorothy L. Sayers.
Harmondsworth. Canto XIX line(s) 1-4 {Eng.: Penguin, 1974. Print.
[2] Holy Bible: New International Version. Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011. Print. Acts 8:19
[3] IBID. Acts 23
[4] IBID Acts 23
[5] Dante, Alighieri. The Comedy of Dante Alighieri,
the Florentine: Cantica I - Hell (l'Inferno). Trans. Dorothy L. Sayers.
Harmondsworth. Canto XIX line(s) 43-44 {Eng.: Penguin, 1974. Print.
[6] IBID Canto XIX line(s) 23.
[7] "Leg (redirected from Lower Limb)."
TheFreeDictionary.com. Web. 17 Apr. 2012.
<http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Lower limb>
[8] Dante, Alighieri. The Comedy of Dante Alighieri,
the Florentine: Cantica I - Hell (l'Inferno). Trans. Dorothy L. Sayers.
Harmondsworth. Canto XXXIV line(s) 1 {Eng.: Penguin, 1974. Print.
[9] Ibid Canto XXXIV line(s) 32-34
[10] Holy
Bible: New International Version. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2011. Print.
John 1:14
[11] Dante, Alighieri. The Comedy of Dante Alighieri,
the Florentine: Cantica I - Hell (l'Inferno). Trans. Dorothy L. Sayers.
Harmondsworth. Canto XXXIV line(s) 19-21 {Eng.: Penguin, 1974. Print.
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